Biblical Archaeology Review

“ … thus they do, year by year” (Community Rule [1QS] 2.19).

Josephus, War 2.139–142: “He makes solemn vows before his brethren. He first swears to practice piety towards the Deity … ”

Essenes show their love of God “by rejection of oaths,” Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit 84; and see Josephus, War 2.135: “Every word they speak is stronger than an oath and they refrain from swearing, considering it worse than perjury.”

Robert Donceel, “Reprise de travaux de publication des fouilles au Khirbet Qumran,” Revue Biblique 99:3 (1992), pp. 557–573.

Josephus, War 2.122: “They despise riches … in vain would one search among them for one man with a greater fortune than another”; Philo, Apologia pro Judaeis 4: “None of them can endure to possess anything of his own,” and 11: “All of them loving frugality and hating luxury as a plague for body and soul.”

“No man shall chide his manservant or maidservant or laborer on the Sabbath” (Damascus Rule [CD] 11.12). “[H]e shall not sell them [the Gentiles] his manservant or his maidservant” (CD 12.10).

Philo, Quod omnis probus liber sit, 79: “There are no slaves among them, not a single one … and they condemn slave-owners … in that they transgress the law of nature.”

Josephus, Antiquities 18.21: “They acquire no slaves; in fact they consider slavery an injustice.”

De Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls, pp. 57–58; S. H. Steckoll, Preliminary Excavation Report in the Qumran Cemetery Revue de Qumran 6:23 (1968), pp. 323–336.

“From [his] youth they shall instruct him in the Book of Meditation and shall teach him according to his age … for ten years.” Messianic Rule (1QSa) 1.6–8. See also Temple Scroll (11QT) 62.9–10: “[When an enemy city is captured] … you shall put all males to the sword, but the women, the children … you may take as spoil for yourself.”